Death Of Salesman Essays (598 words) - English-language Films

Death Of Salesman All of the characters in the performance "Death of a Salesman" have special traits that are indicative of their personality and literary purpose in the piece. Each serves a particular purpose and symbolizes distinct goals, functions, or qualities. One by one, the author places every character in a specific location to contrast, or emphasize another character's shortcomings, mistakes, or areas of strength. For example, an author might place the drama's antagonist in many scenes with the protagonist. This not only creates the plot, but also makes the plot easier to understand. In the same way, Bernard, a character in "Death of a Salesman", is placed next to Biff, the protagonist's son. Biff, is lost in a world created by his dazed father, who instills in him a set of false values, and eventually becomes a failure in his early age. In spite of the fact that Bernard admires Biff and believes he is able to help him prosper, Biff is unable to listen. Bernard also interacts with the protagonist himself, again showing the same traits that are indicative of his character. Bernard, who is a successful student and later a successful attorney, is opposite the characteristics Biff is taught makes a man great. Our first example of Bernard's character is his interaction with Biff is in Act I, when the reader infers Bernard is tutoring Biff: "Biff, Listen Biff, I heard Mr.Birnbaum say that if you don't start studyin' math he's gonna flunk you and you won't graduate. I heard him!" These initial statements, spoken by Bernard, are indicative to the reader of how helpful he tries to be to Biff. He is among the only characters with a sense of reality; the only character that tries to help Biff take concrete, analytical steps to helping him succeed. He understands the consequences of Biff's actions, and tries to dissuade his directionless ambition towards a more solid goal. "He's gotta study Uncle Willy. He's got regents next week." "Just because he printed University of Virginia on his sneakers doesn't mean they've got to graduate him, Uncle Willy." Once again, this illustrates Bernard is the one of the only characters in tune with reality. He cares for Biff and wants to see him graduate. This is why he is constantly pushing Biff to complete his work. As Bernard matures, he continues his modest, responsible attitude towards life. The protagonist himself is confronted with Bernard's character, and comes to terms with the sudden insight his son is no where near as well off as Bernard, even though they were initially given the same opportunities. Now, the reader infers Bernard is an attorney: "Oh, just a case I've got there, [Washington] Willy." When Bernard describes his Supreme Court case as "just a case", the reader sees how admirably modest he is. He has become a great man, as inferred from his lines, without being well liked or extremely handsome. He is a developed gentleman,which the protagonists admires, and confides in Bernard asking him where did his son miscarry. "But sometimes, Willy, it's better for a man just to walk away." In this last line of advice, given by an adult Bernard to Willy, the protagonist, the reader sees his basic foundation of caring for another person is not destroyed: he still means for the best in what he does and says. He is concerned for the needs of both the protagonist and his son, and proves this by telling Willy to continue with his life and let his son find his own path. In conclusion, the character traits of the players in "Death of a Salesman are evident. It is also apparent that they are placed juxtapositionally with each other to highlight the other's features. The characters' indicative qualities are what makes animates the plot, and makes for a vibrant literary piece.

Using Instructional Materials to Sustain Pss2 Secretarial Students’ Interest in Office Practice Subject at Joy Professional Academy, Kumasi Essays

Using Instructional Materials to Sustain Pss2 Secretarial Students’ Interest in Office Practice Subject at Joy Professional Academy, Kumasi Essays Using Instructional Materials to Sustain Pss2 Secretarial Students’ Interest in Office Practice Subject at Joy Professional Academy, Kumasi Essay Using Instructional Materials to Sustain Pss2 Secretarial Students’ Interest in Office Practice Subject at Joy Professional Academy, Kumasi Essay Background to the Study A teaching method may be described as the standard procedure in the presentation of instructional materials and the content of activities. It is the way and manner in which the teacher presents his/her lesson to enable his/her students acquire knowledge in the subject under consideration. Any teaching method a teacher uses has advantages, disadvantages, and requires some preliminary preparation. Often times, a particular teaching method will naturally flow into another, all within the same lesson, and the excellent teacher can develop the skills to make the process faultless to their students. The classification of a teaching method as being right for a particular lesson depends on many factors such as, the age and developmental level of the students,  their experiences, interests and goals, what they already know, and what they need to know to succeed with the lesson, the subject-matter content, the objective of the lesson,  the available number of students, time, space and material resources, and the physical setting. However, another, more difficult problem is to select an instructional method that best  fits ones particular teaching style and the lesson-situation. There is no one right method for teaching a particular lesson, but there are some criteria that pertain to each lesson that can help a teacher make the best decision possible. Individuals learn in different ways. According to Dale (1996) from the www. dol. gov website, a person remembers 10% of what they read, 20% of what they heard, 30% of what they seen and 50% of what is seen and heard. The percentage increases for those fortunate enough to read, hear, see and do things in actual or practical experiences. A teacher has many options when choosing a style to teach by. The teacher may write lesson plans of their own, borrow plans from other teachers, or search online or within books for lesson plans. Teachers know that students learn in different ways. Students take in information and demonstrations of knowledge differently too. Teachers use multiple means of knowledge to help students learn and strengthen understanding. Teachers use a variety of strategies and methods to ensure that all students have equal opportunities to learn. Teaching methods vary as to the conditions they can create and different types of learning objectives require different conditions for achievement, the choice of teaching methods should therefore be based primarily on the type of learning objective. First, a single teaching method typically cannot create all the conditions necessary for a given learning objective. Second, learning objectives involving complex skills require teaching methods that promote active learning on the part of students, while learning objectives involving simpler skills can be achieved with more passive teaching methods. However, most teachers of Accounting have been using the lecture method to teach students various concepts and materials in accounting. Students thus become passive learners as they only become receptors of knowledge and are allowed very limited participation in the lessons. This has been one of the contributory factors of a significant number of students failing or performing abysmally in the Accounting paper. This method also suppresses the thinking abilities of the students and affects their abilities to analyse and work problems accurately. Meanwhile, a lot of teaching methods abound and so the researcher would like to find out if the participatory method of teaching can help improve students understanding of the Double Entry Principle in accounting. Statement of the Problem Although there is a growing emphasis on accounting education and a growing awareness for students to acquire greater knowledge of the concepts in accounting, most teachers who teach the subject mostly use the lecture method in the delivery of lessons. Students thus do rote learning and find it very difficult to analyse and solve most problems in accounting. The aim f the researcher therefore, is to attempt to use the participatory method to assist students in their efforts to acquire more knowledge and improve their understanding of the complex nature of the Double Entry Principle. Objective(s) of the Study The specific objective of the study is to use participatory method in teaching the double entry principle in accounting. Purpose of the Study Th e purpose of the study is to find out whether the participatory method of teaching can help to improve Post Secondary School (PSS) 1 students at Joy Professional Academy understanding of the Double Entry Principle in Accounting. Research Questions The following research questions were used for the study (1) How can the participatory method of teaching improve students’ understanding of the Double Entry Principle in Accounting? (2) Is the participatory method of teaching the best for teaching the Double Entry Principle in accounting? Significance of the Study The significance of the study are as follows: (i) This action research would help teachers teach double entry principles to improve upon the learning of accounting to PSS1 students at Joy Professional Academy, Kumasi by using participatory based method. ii) It would help teachers strive to improve their teaching methods in accounting. (iii) It would help increase the students’ level of learning and understanding. When there is an emphasis on teaching for meaning, there is student’s greater retention and an increased likelihood that the ideas will be used in new situations. (iv) It would serve as literature for review in further studi es. Delimitations of the Study Due to time and material constraints, the study is limited to the Post Secondary School (PSS) 1 class at Joy professional Academy, Kumasi. Only the members in this class were used for the study. Organisation of the Study This study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one is the introduction. It looks at the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study and significance of the study. It also briefly looks at the research questions and delimitations of the study. Chapter two is the literature review. Literature is reviewed according to the research questions. Chapter three presents the methodology used for this study. It also looks at the research design. It explains the population, sample and sampling procedure and the instruments used in collecting data for the study. It also discusses how data was collected and analysed. Chapter four presents the intervention design and implementation of the problem identified Chapter five presents the results of the study. It also analyses the results of the study. Chapter six presents the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the study. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This chapter is the review of literature. It presents the literature according to the research questions. In presenting the literature review, the researcher would like to give a brief detail about the Double entry Principle In accountancy, the double-entry bookkeeping (or double-entry accounting) system is the basis of the standard system used by businesses and other organisations to record financial transactions. Its premise is that a businesss (or other organisations) financial condition and results of operations are best recorded in accounts. Each account maintains a history of changes in monetary values about a particular aspect of the business. This system is called double-entry because each transaction is recorded in at least two accounts. Each transaction results in at least one account being debited and at least one account being credited, with the total debits of the transaction equal to the total credits. This requirement has a benefit to the bookkeeper, because the accuracy of the accounts can be checked quickly for, when all the accounts that have debit balance are summed, they should equal the sum of all the accounts which have a credit balance. Without this requirement, there would be no quick means to check accuracy. The double entry system is the base or fabric for a full fledged financial accounting information system. Financial accounting information system comprises all the documents, records and evidence of financial transactions between the business, its employees and the outside world. Advantages of double entry principles i. Entry for every transaction is made twice, one on the debit side and the other at the credit side. This provides an automatic check on the correctness of the records. If cash is misappropriated, other things being equal, it would be revealed by the accounts ii. A picture of the company’s financial obligations and the resources to meet them is always in focus. iii. All transactions are suitably divided into a personal and in personal group. iv. A double entry system facilitates the setting out of the financial position of the business at any moment in time. v. The double entry system helps the business to associate each person or business with the area of operation to which he is connected with the business and the amount due on such operation. Disadvantages of double entry principles i. It is time consuming and expensive since every transaction should be recorded at least twice ii. It is complicated; it is not easy for a layman to understand and interpret an account, e. g. edger accounts and cashbook. iii. Single entry system avails itself to everyone who can read and write to keep his own records of his transactions. Double entry can be properly done only by an expert. iv. The double entry system gives an unreliable assurance that if the trial balance and the balance sheet agree at the two sides then some accuracy prevails in the recording pr ocess. Using the participatory method of teaching to improve students’ understanding of the Double Entry Principle in Accounting The quality of education depends, to a large extent, on the quality of teachers involved in its development and delivery. A quality teacher will acknowledge the needs and interests of the pupil, permit the pupil to learn at his/her own pace, encourage learning through doing and where necessary provide remedial and enrichment instruction among others. The methods and techniques used by the teacher will help their students realise the understanding of any topic. Jones (1987) in Andersson Bendix (2006) states that participatory teaching methods are â€Å"those which draw the student into the classroom learning process. † A good learning experience can be borne out of the interaction between the participants freely exchanging their knowledge and ideas. Participatory teaching methods can increase both the teachers’ and students’ motivation, as the awareness of what is going on in the classroom increases through interaction. According to Jones (1987) participatory teaching methods include, for example, brainstorming to create ideas spontaneously, directed dialogues as examples of problem solving, small group discussions for preparing food for thought for the whole group, role playing as a stimulation, games as thematized interaction, panel discussions for airing ideas, debates for learning argumentation, and Socratic dialogues as a way to explore the theme further. Scharff and Brown (2004) add learning communities to participatory teaching methods as a way to integrate together students with heterogeneous backgrounds. In theory of situated learning both learners and teachers are considered to form a community of practice together (Wenger, 1998). Similar to apprenticeship, the learner participates in the community, first to learn legitimate ways to communicate within it, and gradually to participate as a full-fledged member in transferring knowledge and skills. The situated learning approach enlightens us on the idea that learning is a two-way process of interaction. The way and manner a teacher would deliver his/her content to his/her students would be informed by the kind of teaching method he/she is using at the particular point in time. Factors like the size of the class, the objectives of the lesson, the time allocated for the lesson, the nature of the topic being treated and its content, among others would help the teacher to know which teaching method to use (Baffour-Awuah, 1992). Perrott (1988) commented on teachers’ characteristics that promote teaching and learning as follows: teachers should be enthusiastic, businesslike and task oriented. She said further that teachers should be clear when presenting instructional content. She added that teachers should also use a variety of instructional materials and procedures and should provide opportunities for students to learn the instructional content. Farrant (1982) said that to promote effective teaching and learning in schools, the teachers should be knowledgeable or qualified and be able to adopt the appropriate instructional methods to bring about desired objectives. The best teaching method for presenting the Double Entry Principle in Accounting According to Baffour-Awuah (1992), there is nothing like the best teaching method for teaching one or all topics in any subject. It needs a combination of two or more methods for one to teach effectively. Francoise et al (1995) suggested that instructional choice can improve comprehension and memory of concepts and procedures while affording students an opportunity to develop their thinking skills, principles and concept demanded by the accounting students. Cooper and Mucks (1989) described group learning as a structural systematic instructional strategy in which small groups work together towards a common goal. When establishing a basis for constructing an appropriate response to the afore-mentioned description, it is important for an instructor to use group learning in the teaching and learning of accounting. Feldman and Dow (1997) supported the idea that group activities that enhance students’ communication and interaction encourages more active learning environment. Larson (1990) revealed that the educational philosophy behind the development of accounting is that learning occurs most effective when students are actively involved. He said the goal is for students to use much of their study time as possible in active behaviour such as answering questions and solving problems. The above statements suggest that to promote effective teaching and learning in school, teachers should involve students actively in lessons especially concerning problem solving and workings on class exercises. Tamakloe et al (1996) said that it is important to note that the rate of learning of the average student is not the same as that of the very fast learner, or the one who learns at a slow pace. They said this calls for the recognition of the potent role which individual differences play in the learning process. They have suggested that programmes of learning should be designed to cater for individual dispositions so that each student can learn at his own pace. Teachers, of course, aim at the best possible product, such as students passing their exams and getting a degree. Students, nowadays, are both customers and users of teaching. The students know their own rights, and capabilities or limitations, and the value of this should be put in to use in getting the students involved during the teaching/learning process (Vuokko and Berg, 2007). According to Andersson and Bendix (2006) in university traditions, students are usually approached as teaching subjects. Smith (1999) disclosed that good relationship between students and instructors and the establishment of conducive environment in the classroom have the tendency of improving students’ performance in accounting for the objectives to be achieved. This framework recognizes the need to first establish the learning objective and the material needed to accomplish the objectives. Brunner and Piaget (1993) who advocated for learning by discovery believed that students learn best when they have the opportunity to discover for themselves what they do not know. Hence, concrete learning should precede abstract learning. Farrant (1982) stressed that motivational methods can bring about desired objectives. He therefore mentions motivational techniques such as awarding arks and praise, and giving special gifts like books and sweets, doing practice and repetition and individualised learning are important in promoting effective learning. Ehiametalor (1990) suggested that to improve upon the performance of the students, the presentation of accounting information should be followed by assignments. Moore (1989) maintained that teachers should be enthusiastic in their teaching, because enthusiastic teachers produce higher academic achievers all things being equal. Whitehead (1991) suggested that to improve the ability of students in schools, students should concentrate on areas in which they are least competent. He said the competencies required of the accounting students are the ability to master the processes involved which include the ability to explain concepts. Davidson (1994) charged all stakeholders in education to lay a strong foundation in education to enable students do well in school. Borich (1988) also suggested that the teacher could concentrate on the middle level or average students while giving individual attention to the weak students. He recommended that the above average students could be encouraged to work ahead of their colleagues. Finally, accounting students need to apply accounting principles and concepts in tackling accounting questions. Johnstone and Biggs (1998) mention problem-based learning, identification of problem-solving skills, critical thinking skills and case method as ways to develop accounting studies. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter presents the methodology used for the study. It also looks at the research design. It explains the population, sample and sampling rocedure and the instruments used in collecting data for the study. It discusses how data was collected and analysed. Research Design The research design used for the study was the evaluative study. This method sought to make judgement about the effectiveness and relevance of the participatory method of teaching in Accounting. Population The population was made up of students of the PSS 1 Accounting Class and teacher s in the school who taught Accounting. This population was chosen because they would be able to provide the researcher with the relevant data needed for analysis. Sample and Sampling Procedure The sample for the study was made up of twenty five students drawn from the PSS1 Accounting Class. The simple random sampling method which is a probability sample in which each population element has a known and equal chance of being included in the sample was used to select the respondents. It also helped the researcher to identify and enumerate the finite population. Instruments The researcher used questionnaires, interviews and observations as its key instruments in the study. Questionnaires Questionnaire was used to obtain information from a number of the students and teachers who were sampled for the study. The items in the questionnaires were written in a clear language to enable respondents understand and answer the questions objectively as possible. The choice of the questionnaire for the study was that the researcher did her internship in the school in which the research took place and so the identification of the population for the study was not difficult. The only weakness was that it some of the respondents did not return their questionnaire for the analysis of data. Interview schedules Students and teachers’ views on the double entry principle in accounting were sought. The interview sought to find out students perception, interest, attitude and their performance in accounting. It also sought to find students views on the various methods employed during the teaching of the subject Observations Personal observations were carried out during the one year internship programme. The purpose was to find out how students behave towards the teaching of accounting and how to improve upon students’ performance in the subject. Again, it was aimed at observing methods and strategies employed during the teaching of accounting. In addition, the researcher also observed the relationship between the teachers and students during accounting lessons. Data Collection Procedures Data was collected through questionnaires and interviews. Data was also collected through books, journals, and articles written by specialist in the fields of education mostly especially on teaching methods. Data Analysis In an effort to make the presentation of the findings succinct and comprehensive, the data was organised into tables and the results were analysed using mean mark. The difference in mean mark helped the researcher to make meaningful conclusions for the study. CHAPTER FOUR INTERVENTION DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Introduction This chapter presents the intervention design and implementation for this study. Intervention Design The following factors are the interventions designed to use the participatory method of teaching to improve students’ understanding of the Double Entry Principle in Accounting. The participatory method of teaching involves teaching methods that involves learners or students in the teaching/learning process. There are a lot of participatory teaching methods but the ones the researcher used were: (i) The Activity Method (ii) The Demonstration Method (iii) The Discussion Method Implementation of the Intervention Designs (i) The Activity Method This is a way of working that allows investigation, experience or study in which the student is allowed to develop and express his own ideas, thoughts and activities. This method is learner-centred in that it lays more emphasis on the active participation of the student with a minimum intervention or interference by the teacher. Implementation of the Activity Method The researcher selected the sub-topic â€Å"Recording transactions in the assets and liabilities accounts† under the Double Entry Principle and all the materials and teaching aids like charts and prepared questions for the group. The researcher prepared the environment (i. e. the classroom) where the lesson was held to facilitate teaching and learning. The researcher gave the exact and clear instructions to the students as to how to go through the lesson. This was done during the introduction of the lesson. The rule or instruction for the double entry concept states that every debit entry in the book of accounts must have a corresponding credit entry and vice versa. The rule for entering transactions into the assets and liability accounts was explained to the students. The rule for entering transactions in the assets accounts states that: (a) to increase an asset, debit the accounts and (b) to decrease an asset, credit the accounts and while the rule for entering transactions in the liability accounts states that: (a) to increase a liability, credit the account and (b) to decrease a liability, debit the account. The students were grouped into five groups with five members in each group for the activities. Each group was given a prepared question and was told to discuss and enter the transaction into the appropriate accounts correctly showing the double entry effect of each transaction. For example, the questions that were given are as follows: a) Kwame started business with cash GH? 400 b) Paid loan from outside party by cash GH? 20 c) Introduced capital deposited into the business bank account GH? 100 d) Purchased stock in trade on one month’s credit for GH? 30 from Ato e) Bought a motor van GH? 0 paying by cheque The researcher moved among the groups to guide and supervise their work. The researcher called the group leader to present the solution of each group on the chalkboard. Students were then asked to give their opinions on each solution that had been presented. They discussed the solutions that had been presented. The researcher was alert to any unexpected situation that occur red in the course of the lesson and gave prompt solutions to them. The researcher concluded the lesson by reviewing it through questioning and also allowed the students to give a verbal summary of what they did. The researcher gave students assignment on the sub-topic to do at home and present it to her for marking the next day. The advantage of the activity was that it makes learning more interesting, enjoyable but not passive and boring to the students. It encourages pupils to be creative, curious, develop initiative and to discover new knowledge. It also helps to reinforce and revise what is being taught. However, its disadvantages are that it is time consuming and also requires a hardworking and resourceful teacher to handle this method effectively. (ii) The Demonstration Method The demonstration involves showing, telling and doing something can be observed by an individual or group of learners. In demonstration, the teacher is the principal performer or demonstrator while the students are his/her audience. It is usually the major part of all the learning activities which facilitate learning by doing. Implementation of the Demonstration Method The researcher gave the sub-topic â€Å"Account† to the students. She introduced the lesson by telling the students the objectives of the demonstration in order to motivate them to participate in the lesson. The researcher gave an overview of the main steps of the demonstration. This was to allow the students have an idea of what was to be learnt. Steps 1. (i) The definition of the term â€Å"account† was written on the chalkboard (ii) The simplest form of the account was given to the students as the ‘T’-account. It has two sides; the left-hand side and the right-hand side. The left-hand side is debit (Dr. ) side and the right-hand side is the credit (Cr. ) side. The title which is centred at the top of the account gives the particular name of account. (iii) The example of the account format was written on the chalkboard for the students to see as: Machine Account Dr. Cr. 2. The students were shown how to record transactions at the appropriate sides of the respective accounts. For example: Kofi Atta’s Account ? ? Loan 500,000 Purchases 2,000,000 The demonstration method assists in making the results of difficult activities readily available and also can be used to verify observations made previously by students. It also helps students to think and apply what they have learnt in a demonstration to new situations. However, the demerits are that it can result in students initiating a practice without understanding its basis. It also requires much planning and preparation by the demonstrator. iii) The Discussion Method This method involves the exchange of ideas, facts and opinions about a topic between individuals or group of students under the guidance of the teacher. The main mode of interaction between the students is by verbal or oral communication. The discussion was done by the whole class. Implementation of the Discussion Method The researcher mentioned the topic to be discussed to the students. The topic that was for the discussion was â€Å"Ledger,† one of the sub-topics under the double entry system. The researcher announced the procedure for conducting the discussion to the students. The researcher then initiated the discussion and guided students to come out with a definition of a â€Å"ledger. † After the definition of a ledger, the researcher asked the students a series of questions to help them out with the features of a ledger. The researcher led the students through questioning to come out with the functions of the ledger. This stage was very interesting as students came out with several functions of the ledger. The researcher ensured that the students talked about the topic and did not deviate from it. The researcher asked leading questions to come out with the classifications of the ledger. Students were able to come out with these ledgers. The researcher wrote all the important points in the course of the discussion on chalkboard for the students to see and understand what is being discussed. The researcher ended the discussion by summarising all the main points, facts and opinions mentioned in the discussion. The researcher asked the students questions to review their understanding. The merits of the discussion method is that it helps students to explore for answers to problems and it also the students to get clearer views on the ideas they express as it clarifies their thinking. CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter presents the results of the study. It also discusses the results of the study. This study was to find out how the use of the participatory method of teaching could help improve students’ understanding of the double entry principle in accounting. The study reveals the pre and post intervention results when the various intervention strategies were implemented. Table 1: Results of the students with the use of the Activity Method No. of Students Mean Mark Difference in Mean BeforeAfter 255. 087. 041. 96 From Table 1, the mean mark of the students in series of exercises conducted for the students before the use of the activity method was 5. 08. The mean mark of the students after the use of the method was 7. 04. When the two marks are compared, the mean difference between the two scores was 1. 96. This indicated that the use of the activity method had a greater influence on the understanding and performance of the students in the various tasks. Table 2: Results of the students with the use of the Demonstration Method No. of Students Mean Mark Difference in Mean BeforeAfter 2535. 4862. 426. 76 From Table 2, the mean mark of the students in series of exercises conducted for the students before the use of the demonstration method was 35. 48 while the mean mark of the students after the use of the method was 62. 24. The mean difference between the two scores was 26. 76. This indicated that the use of the demonstration method had a greater influence on the understanding and performance of the students in the various tasks. Table 3: Results of the students with the use of the Discussion Method No. of Students Mean Mark Difference in Mean BeforeAfter 2544. 8069. 8425. 4 From Table 3, the mean mark of the students in series of exercises conducted for the students before the use of the discussion method was 44. 80 while the mean mark of the students after the use of the method was 69. 84. The mean difference between the two scores was 25. 04. This indicated that the use of the discussion method had a greater influence on the understanding and performance of the students in the various tasks. Discussion of the Findings The objective of the study was to use the participatory teaching method to enhance students’ understanding of the double entry principle. The mean mark of the students in the assessment tasks before the use of the intervention strategy (activity method) was implemented was very low. This however, had increased by a significant (greater) margin. This meant that the students had showed much improvement and understanding of the topic that they had being taught. The activity method helped the students to be able to undertake the various activities that were presented to them. With respect to table 2, the story was not much different. The students’ mean mark had increased by a margin of 26. 76. This showed that the method used in delivering the lessons to the students was very effective. From table 3, the pre-intervention mean mark of 44. 80 had increased to 69. 84. The discussion method had helped to improve upon the performance of students in using the double entry principle in accounting. The adoption of all the intervention strategies contributed effectively in diverse ways to help achieve the objectives of the study. For instance, student’s response to questions showed that their improved performance in the various forms of assessment indicates that each of the intervention designs played a vital role. CHAPTER SIX REFLECTIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This chapter presents the reflections, conclusion and recommendations for the study. Reflection In reflecting upon this study, the researcher has come out with the following comments. The methods used by the researcher developed in students the spirit of co-operation among the students particularly during the use of the class discussion and the activity teaching methods. It was also revealed that the combination of different teaching methods during the teaching and learning process is a positive step since individual students benefit from different teaching strategies. The researcher identified some peculiar problems students encounter in analysing some concepts in the double entry principle. Students found it difficult, for example, to identify different accounts. The researcher found out that teachers tend to use complex sentences in explaining concepts to students. Most of the teachers did not use simple sentences to explain concepts to the students. The students perceive accounting subject as a very difficult one and so most of them were not punctual to class when it was time for accounting. Again, the lack of up-to-date Accounting textbooks was also a problem. The students used pamphlets and hand-outs that did not treat the very fine details of the subject. Most of the teachers used mostly one teaching method especially, the lecture method. This affected the students’ understanding on most of the topics. They did not involve the students much in the teaching/learning process. Also, the environment in which teaching and learning was not cordial. Students were seen as dull and so the teachers did not accommodate them in the teaching/learning process. Most of the teachers were also not regular in class because of lack of effective supervision by the administrators of the school. Some of the teachers most of the time did not make use of teaching materials in their lessons. They had the impression that the teaching of the topic did not call for teaching and learning materials. Conclusion The following findings were made: It came out the activity, demonstration, and discussion methods helped students to improve upon the learning of double entry principles in accounting and also made them conversant with the accounting policies and concepts. It was also revealed that the students became confident to practise what they had been taught by the teacher with the use of the activity, demonstration, and discussion methods. From the findings, the conclusion drawn is that the use of participatory method assisted students to improve upon their understanding and performance of the double entry principle in accounting. Recommendations It is recommended that: (i) Accounting teachers in the school should be resourceful and use effective instructional methods in teaching in order to improve upon instruction in accounting studies. They use a combination of traditional and contemporary instructional methods in teaching such as co-operative learning, demonstration, discussion and activity based has brought a significant change in the performance of the students. ii) Curriculum developers should also design instructional procedures to serve as a guide for teachers in their use of the suggested syllabus. (iii) Again, the school administrators should organise workshops for the accounting teachers in the school to keep them abreast with current and changing trends in the teaching of accounting. (iv) Teachers should t ry as much as possible to give more exercises to the students. They should also be given more practical work and a lot of homework to help extend students learning time. v) Teachers should use appropriate teaching and learning aids to reinforce the concepts to help enhance students’ interest in the lessons when they are being taught. Suggestion for Future Research In view of the limited area this study covered as a result of time and financial resources constraints, it is suggested that a further research be conducted using a different teaching method to ascertain students understanding in the double entry principle in accounting.

Prostitution and Surrogacy, Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Prostitution and Surrogacy, - Essay Example The role of religion in surrogate motherhood is best typified by the biblical scenario where barren Sarah (Abraham wife) arranged for Abraham and Hagar (Surrogate mother) to have a child. The surrogate role Hagar played made her proud and pompous to the extent of refusing to hand over the son she had born. Christian apologetic portend that "surrogacy is a personal decision between a couple and God. That God is the moral Arbiter in the universe, whose justification is exactly differentiated on what is immoral or moral". This factor afore mentioned deals with morality, enshrined in ones religion beliefs. The Vatican has condemned surrogacy including all other non conjugal reproductive arrangements as sinful. The Roman Catholic Church states that, this in defense of cardinal human values; implying the threat on the sanctity of the traditional family unit posed by a third party. The financing of a surrogacy to process is quite costly. However the factor that is debatable is the payment of dues to the gestational individuals. That from the onset one may pay to sleep (and sire a child) with a surrogate bring in the version of prostitution. The motive behind the payment made and accepted questions the ultimate goal. Whether it is for love or money The couple and the surrogate are encouraged to share information, to undergo successive therapies and medical checks. The unsettling factor is the probable loss of privacy. The exposure of ones personal details may leave one feeling uncomfortable and vulnerable. Pregnancy has its possible outcomes at birth in the form of miscarriages, multiple births, and serious disabilities. And there is always the risk that either the surrogate mother or the commissioning couple could have a change of mind. The legality of surrogacy Legislation is a measure with regulatory limits that has served in defining extents of surrogate motherhood. The law lacks uniformity in the application of the practice; however different federal jurisdictions distinguish between the concept of unpaid and unpaid surrogacy. The "altruistic" mode of surrogacy involves no payment for the service. On the other hand "commercial" surrogacy has the element of tribute payment. Altruistic surrogacy is, in many jurisdictions, unregulated. On the other hand punitive limits are placed on the commercial one. Advertising of surrogacy is prohibited, to reduce spread of practice. Surrogate contracts are unenforceable; hence surrogate mothers cannot relinquish custody of child to commissioning parents. The status of children Act, denies the bond between child and commissioning sperm donor while espousing the resulting offspring to be that of the surrogate mother and her husband (as legally bound). Successive lawmakers questioned talked of undesirable separation of roles, with a mother who sells her eggs, on who carries baby to term and the one to raise baby. Also most surrogate parents / couples were noted to be in search of specific quality refusing to accept disabled kids. Classic profiles are noted as driving point, with commissioning couples seeking positive eugenics. Surrogates are chosen due to the positive attributes the offer

Study case3 Case Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Case3 - Case Study Example Despite the poor performance, 25% of the company’s revenue is generated from beauty products sales that has brought forth highly innovative product under the leadership of A.G. Lafley as the CEO. Under his first tenure (2000 to 2009), P&G undertook various creative innovations that saw to double increase of its products sales. As the CEO, A.G. Lafley has come up with various measures that are aimed at propelling the company’s profitable sales of its products. The company has been pruning some of its production segments which include the selling of pet food producing segment to the Candy Bar and Pedigree-maker Mars Inc. for $2.9 billion which is enough cash to undertake innovations and reinvest in the growing shaving, baby care, beauty and fabric segments (Brown, Bruce, and Scott D. Anthony 42-56). In 2010, the company revealed a sustainable program to drive 20% reduction in energy used for every unit of production by the year 2020. This has cut down energy consumption by 8% per unit, and also continues to introduce energy management systems at new locations that will help the company save millions of dollars. Moreover; P&G has engage momentous mechanisms to enhance productivity, counting a five-year cost savings initiative that will last through 2016. Through this, Proctor and Gamble CO. Targets to save $10 billion in costs related to goods traded, marketing expenses and non-manufacturing expenses. This program helped the company save $1.2 billion in cost of goods sold in the fiscal year 2013. The company has also incorporated a reshuffling process of its worldwide sales operation, combining Eastern and Western Europe into the single transaction. While the other combination is for India into its African and Middle East operations aiming at organizing the sales distribution in parallel geographical location and cutting cost (Brown, Bruce, and

The Experience After Death in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism Essay

The Experience After Death in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism - Essay Example The three religions are mostly practiced in the South Asian region of the world. With the advancement in science, people have started questioning the different beliefs in their respective religions. A detailed study of the three religions gives us convincing evidence of the existence of the after life, the nature of the soul and the journey towards its final destination and the concept of heaven and hell. In this paper I will study the concept of life after death in the light of the teachings of Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. Like most religions of the world Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism also believe in the experience of the life after death. Each of the three religions gives detailed accounts of the journey of the soul from the time of its departure from the physical body towards the final destination. According to Glin-pa and Evans Wentz (2000), in Buddhism the after death journey is covered by the soul in 49 days (pg. 104). During this period the soul passes through a number of stages which have been mentioned by the authors in â€Å"The Tibetan Book of the Dead (2000)†. After which the soul enters into another body and is ready for rebirth. Death is not a sad experience for the Buddhists. It is just the beginning of the process of rebirth. In Hinduism, like in Buddhism the experience of death is not a sad one. It is rather referred to as the changing of the clothes (pg. 15) or moving from one house to another (pg. 15) by Sri Swami Sivnanda (1997) in his book entitled â€Å"What becomes of the Soul after death†. The after life journey of a Hindu soul is completed in one year during which the soul passes through many stages. The greater the sins committed by the soul the harder become the journey (pg. 16). Peter Clark (1999, pg. 63) discusses the concept of life after death in his book entitled â€Å"An Introduction to an Ancient Faith†. According to him the Zoroastrian faith also supports

Drug Profile of Tizanidine HCl

Drug Profile of Tizanidine HCl Structure: Categories: Analgesics, Anticonvulsants, Parasympatholytics, Muscle Relaxants, Central, Adrenergic aipha-2 Receptor Agonists, Neuromuscular Agents, Muscle relaxant , Skeletal Weight: Average: 253.711 Monoisotopic: 253.018893678 Chemical Formula: C9H8ClN5S IUPAC Name: 5-Chloro-N-(4, 5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2, 1, 3-benzothiadiazol-4-amine Taxonomy: Kingdom: Organic Compounds Superclass: Heterocyclic Compounds Class: Benzothiadiazoles Direct parent: Benzothiadiazoles Alternative parents: Chlorobenzenes:Thiadiazoles; Polyamines; Aryl Chlorides; Guanidines; Organochlorides. Substituents: Chlorobenzene: Aryl chloride; Aryl halide; Thiadiazole; Guanidine; Azole; Organochloride; Organohalogen; Polyamine; Organonitrogen compound; Amine. Classification: These belong to Heterocyclic. This compound belongs to the benzothiadiazoles. Description: Aromatic compound containing a benzene ring fused to a thiadiazole ring. Pharmacology: Indication: To manage increased muscle tone associated with spasticity. For the management of spasticity Tizanidine is a short- acting drug. It is a agonist at a2-adrenergic receptor sites and by increasing presynaptic inhibition of motor neurons presumably decreases spasticity. Pharmacodynamics: Tizanidine has no direct effect on neuromuscular junction or skeletal muscle fibers and in monosynaptic spinal reflexes there is no major effect, in animal models. On polysynaptic pathways the effects of Tizanidine are more. To reduce the facilitation of spinal motor neurons the overall effect of these actions are thought. Mechanism of action: By increasing the presynaptic inhibition of motor neurons reduces Tizanidine spasticity through agonist action at a2-adrenergic receptor sites. Volume of distribution: 2.4L/kg Protein binding: 30% Route of elimination: Approximately 95% of an administered dose is metabolized. Half life: 2.5 hours Affected organisms: Humans and other mammals Drug interactions: Amlodipine: Amlodipine may decrease the clearance and metabolism of Tizanidine During co-administration considers alternate use caution or Therapy. Benazepril: With ACE inhibitor Tizanidine increases the risk of hypotension. Captopril: With ACE inhibitor Tizanidine increases the risk of hypotension. Solubility: Storage: cool dry place and in well-closed container. 4.3. EXCIPIENT PROFILE: Pharmaceutical excipients are substances, alternative than the pharmacologically effective drug or prodrug, that are indicated in the manufacturing process are hold in the final pharmaceutical compound dosage form. Excipients bring enhance practicability to the pharmaceuticals, advancement the alterations in the drug development and aid to advance patent life as well. Excipients arrange the products also practical at lower cost, they use a lot aim by the pharmaceutical industry which is overflow with pressure to reduce cost. Excipients show a comprehensive change of useful in pharmaceutical dosage forms, along with: The bioavailability and solubility of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) have been modulated. In dosage forms stability of the active ingredients have been increased. Preferred polymorphic conformations or forms are maintained by helping active ingredients. Maintaining the pH and/or osmolality of liquid productions. Acting as emulsifying agents, antioxidants, tablet binders, aerosol propellants, and as a tablet disintegrate. Preventing dissociation or aggregation (e.g., polysaccharide and actives protein). Immunogenic responses of active ingredients are modulated (e.g., adjuvant). Polymers: Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Synonyms: Hydroxypropyl methyl ether, HPMC, Methocel. Methylcellulose propylene glycol ether, Methyl hydroxypropyl methyl ether [9004-65-3]. Non- proprietary name: BP:Hypromellose USP:Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Functional Category: Coating agent, viscosity- increasing agent, tablet binder. Description: HPMC is tasteless and an odorless, white fibrous or granular powder, white or creamy. Alkalinity /acidity: pH 5.5-8.0 for a 1%w/w aqueous solution. Melting point: Browns at 190-200 °C, chars at 225-230 °C, glass transition temperature is 170-180 °C. Moisture content: Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose consume moisture from the atmosphere, the quantity of water consumed based on the moisture content and relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air. Solubility: Soluble in forming a viscous colloidal solution, cold water, practically insoluble in ethanol (95%), chloroform, and either, but soluble in mixtures of dichloromethane and ethanol and mixtures of dichloromethane and methanol, and mixtures of alcohol and water. Methocel productUSP 28 DesignationNormal Viscosity (cps) Methoel K4M Premium 22084000 Methocel K100M Premium2208100000 Methocel K15M Premium220815000 Most influential factors is drug solubility for designing a drug release pattern. Require higher amounts of HPMC in the tablet because they are highly water soluble drugs. Suitable types of HPMC are the methocel K100M and methocel K4M grades, which have a characteristics of quick hydration and gel formation. The higher amount of HPMC or viscosity of HPMC can decrease the drug release rate in the tablet. Generally, maximum contended of methocel in the tablet is less 20%. If the contended is below 20%, there is a danger for excess dissolution in the 1st stage or initial erosion. Application in pharmaceutical formulation or technology: Hypromellose is mostly used in oral and pharmaceutical formulation. Hypromellose is most primarily used as a binder in tablet for oral products, as an extended release tablet matrix and in film coating. Depending upon the viscosity grade, concentration of 2-20% w/w are used in film coating tablets as film-forming solutions. In aqueous film-coating solutions Lower-viscosity grades are used. While in organic solvents higher-viscosity grades are used. Hypromellose at concentration between 0.45-1.0% w/w are may be used for eye drops and artificial tear solution as a thickening agent to vehicles. Also, used as suspending agent, an emulsifier, and stabilizing agent in topical ointments and gels. In addition, for manufacture of capsule hyprmellose is used, for hard contact lenses as a wetting agent and as an adhesive in plastic bandages. Also mostly used in food products and cosmetics. Stability and storage Conditions: HPMC powder is balanced material, although it is hygroscopic after drying. HPMC powder should be stored in a in a cool, dry place and in well- closed container. Incompatibilities: With some oxidizing agents HPMC is incompatible. HPMC will not complex with ionic organic or metallic salts to form insoluble precipitates since it is non-ionic. Safety: It is generally considered as a non-irritant and nontoxic material although oral consumption may have a laxative effect39. Sodium bicarbonate Non-proprietary names: BP/EP: sodium bicarbonate Synonym: Baking soda, e-500, and monosodium carbonate. Chemical name: carbonic acid, monosodium salt, monosodium carbonate. Empirical formula: NaHCO3 Molecular weight: 84.01 Category: alkalizing agent, therapeutic agent. Description: it is an odorless, white crystalline powder with slight alkaline taste. Acidity/ alkalinity: pH 8.3 for freshly prepared 0.1m aqueous solution at 250C. Density: 2.159 g/cm3 Solubility: Practically insoluble in ethanol and soluble in water,. Stability and storage: Sodium bicarbonate is balanced in dry air but still slowly disintegrates in moist air and should accordingly be reserved in a cool dry place and in well-closed container. Safety: sodium bicarbonate balance gastric acid with the change of carbon dioxide orally ingested and that may cause stomach cramps and flatulence. Applications: Employed as a cause of carbon dioxide in effervescent tablets and granules. Also used to buffer the drug molecules that are weak acids. Used in solutions as buffering agent. Also used as freeze-drying stabilizer. As a gas forming agent40. Magnesium stearate Nonproprietary names: BP: Magnesium Stearate, IP: Magnesium Stearate, PhEur: Magnesiistearas, USPNF: Magnesium Stearate. Synonyms: Magnesium octadecananoate; Octadecanoic acid; Magnesium salt; stearic acid magnesium salt. Empirical formula: C36H70MgO4 Chemical name: Octadecanoic acid magnesium salt Molecular weight: 591.34 Structural Formula: Fig 13. Structure of Magnesium Sterate Functional category: Capsule and tablet lubricant. Applications in Pharmaceutical Technology: Magnesium stearate is mostly used in pharmaceutical formulations food and cosmetics. Most primarily at the time of tablet and capsule manufacturing used as a lubricant with concentrations between 0.25% and 0.5% w/w. And also used in barrier creams. Description: Magnesium stearate is actual accomplished milled or precipitated, light white, impalable powder of less bulk density, having faint smell of stearic acid and a quality taste. The powder readily be attached to the skin and greasy to touch. Solubility: Practically insoluble in ether, ethanol (95%), ethanol, ether and water, slightly. Soluble in warm ethanol (95%) and warm benzene41. . Microcrystalline cellulose Synonyms: Microcrystalline cellulose, Avicel, Crystalline cellulose, emocel, vivacel, Cellulosum microcrystallinum. Chemical Name: Cellulose Empirical Formula: (C6H10O5)n where n ≈ 220. Structural formula: Fig 14: Structure of microcrystalline cellulose Functional category: suspending agent, Adsorbent, tablet disintegrant, tablet and capsule diluent. Applications in pharmaceutical formulation or technology: It is primarily used as a diluent/ binder in oral tablet and capsule formulation in both wet granulation processes and direct compression. It has also got some lubricant, antiadherent, and disintegrating properties, which is useful in tableting. Microcrystalline cellulose is used in food products and cosmetics. Description: It occurs as a white, tasteless, odourless crystalline powder keeping of porous particles. It is commercially applicable in different applications and properties. Solubility: Slightly soluble in 5% w/v sodium hydroxide solution; insoluble in most organic solvents, water and dilute acids. GradeNominal mean particle size ( µm)Moisture content Avicel pH -10150≠¤5.0 Avicel pH -102100≠¤5.0 Uses of microcrystalline cellulose Density (bulk): 0.28-0.32 g/cm3 for Avicel PH 102 and 0.29-0.36 g/cm3 for Avicel PH 200 pH: 5.5-7 Flowability: 1.41 g/s Melting point: 260–270 °C. Moisture content: Typically less than 5% w/w. Solubility: Insoluble in dilute acids and water, slightly soluble in 5% w/v sodium hydroxide solution. Specific surface area: 1.21–1.30 m2/g for Avicel pH-102, 0.78–1.18 m2/g for Avicel pH-200. Stability: Microcrystalline cellulose is a stable though hygroscopic material. Storage Conditions: Storeatambientconditions.Keepcontainers sealed; material is very hygroscopic. Incompatibilities: Incompatible with strong oxidizing agents43. Xanthum gum Synonyms: Bacterial Polysaccharide, Corn Sugar Gum, Xanthan, Gomme desucre de mais, Polysaccharide Xanthane, Gomme Xanthane, Polysaccharide Bactà ©rien, Xanthane, Goma Xantana, Xanthomonas campestris. Gomme de Xanthane, Description: Xanthan gum is a sugar-like compound prepared by blending aged (fermented) sugars with assured kind of bacteria. It is used to make medicine. It is used in making some medications and foods. In these products it has different effects. It can keep textures from changing, add thickness, and hold ingredients in place. In many types of medicines Xanthan gum is found. These include: Tablets which slowly break down in the body Liquid drops for the eyes Xanthan gum is formed by heating a carbohydrate (a substance which consists of sugar) withXanthomonas campestrisbacteria, then processing it. Uses: Use as a bulk-forming laxative to treatconstipation. In people with diabetes it lowers blood sugar. In people with diabetes it lowers cholesterollevels. For dry mouth used as a saliva substitute. Side effects: Xanthan gum assume to cause some side effects. A 1987 study, in that five men who are healthy ate roughly 10 to 13gm daily, has commence no adverse effects. It may cause gas. Risks.The FDA has warned against for giving simply thick to premature infants. It has been combined to a danger digestive problem called necrotizing enterocolitis in neonate born prematurely. Interactions: Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interrelates with XANTHAN GUM. By decreasing the absorption of sugars in food Xanthan gum might lower blood sugar. To lower blood sugar Diabetes medications are also used. Blood sugar to be too low may cause by taking xanthan gum with diabetes medications. Guide your blood sugar nearly. The dose of your diabetes medication may need to change. Some medications used for diabetes be composed of glimepiride (Amaryl), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glyburide, glipizide (Glucotrol), (Micronase, Dia Beta, Pres Tab, Glynase), pioglitazone (Actos), insulin, rosiglitazone (Avandia), tolbutamide (Orinase), and others. Dosing: In scientific research the following doses have been studied. Bymouth: The World Health Organization (WHO) has agreed the maximum pleasing intake for xanthan gum as a laxative of 15 grams per day and as a food additive of 10 mg/kg /day. Xanthan gum require extra fluids for effectiveness and safety, bulk laxatives such as. For diabetes: As an ingredient in muffins a typical dose is 12grams per day44. Aerosil IUPAC Name: Silicon dioxide Synonyms: Quartz, Silicic oxide, Silica, Crystalline silica, Silicon (IV) oxide, Description: Silicon dioxide, also known assilica (from the  Latinsilex), is a  chemical compound  that is an  oxide  of  silicon  with  chemical formulaSiO2. It has been known since ancient times. Silica is most usually found in nature as  quartz or sand, and also in the  cell   walls  of  diatoms  (frustule). Silica is prepared in many forms including fused quartz,  crystal,  fumed silica  (or pyrogenic silica), aerogel,  colloidal silica, and silica gel49.

Internet, Extranet, Email in companies Essay -- essays research papers

The ever-changing world of technology is making the world become smaller every day. Businesses and organizations are taking advantage of the advances in technology to improve their organizations. Technology’s influence reaches beyond improving relations within an organization to enhancing an organization’s ability to service its customers. But even more than that technology is influencing the shape of the organization itself. In order to realize the impact of technology on business organizations, the following paper will focus on how organizations use technology within an organization (intranet, email), how organizations use technology to communicate with and service clients or customers, and finally how organizations are using the current technology to train both employees and customers. How are businesses utilizing technology with their organizations? Email Many businesses at the very least are taking advantage of the current technology to implement email systems. Email systems, in addition to traditional methods of communication including telephones, voice mail and face-to-face interactions are increasing the ease of communication between people in an organization. Through the use of email, people are able to send messages on a one-to-one basis, or to send broadcast messages to an entire organization, or to send messages to a specific group or department. Email provides an alternative to the traditional face-to-face or telephone communication that is necessary in business. With the increased productivity and demands that accompany day-to-day operations, people are always looking for ways to do more in less time. A written message sent via email can be short concise and to the point, eliminating some of the small talk that would normally take place in a face-to-face or telephone interaction. Another advantage of email is that people are able to respond when it is convenient for them. In a society where time is of the essence, people are able to sort through messages and to prioritize which ones should be addressed first. Furthermore, some people prefer sending email messages instead of face-to-face interactions because they are more likely to be intimidated by face-to-face communication. Email gives those types of people the freedom and the opportunity to say exactly what is on their mind. Electronic messaging systems are also a great asset to a manager... ...that studies to measure differences in student performance should go beyond just grades. Therefore, additional studies have included outcomes including student involvement, and participation, cognitive engagement, technology self-efficacy, attitudes toward the technology employed, the usefulness of the technology, attitudes toward technology-mediated distance learning and the relative advantage and disadvantage of distance learning . In order to achieve learning most effectively, methods should include the use of rich media, interaction between students and instructors, and instructors who project positive attitudes. As technology continues to advance, distance learning will continue to become more like traditional classroom training. More people are looking for alternative means for continuing education. Continuing education in organizations is becoming the rule, not the exception. In all areas, internally and externally organizations are embracing technology to get in touch with their workers and the world. The dynamic nature of technology will continue to push organizations in new directions and will continue to play a role in defining and shaping the organizations themselves.

Neurophysiological and Evolutionary Theories of Learning Essay

In the study of learning, learning theories are categorized into paradigms or schools of thought based on viewpoints shared by scientists that provide a framework for research. Three of the major paradigms of learning theories include the cognitive paradigm, the neurophysiological paradigm and the evolutionary paradigm. The first paradigm is referred to as cognitive because theorists place their emphasis on the cognitive nature of learning. According to Hergenhahn and Olson (2005), the second paradigm is called neurophysiological because it attempts to isolate the mental and physiological correlates of things such as learning, perception, thinking and intelligence. The third paradigm is termed evolutionary because theorists attempt to explain learning processes based on an organism’s evolutionary history. DiscussionThere are several theorists whose ideas are predominately cognitive. Theses theorists include the Gestalt psychologists Kurt Lewin and Kurt Koffka, as well as Jean Piaget, Edward Chace Tolman, and Albert Bandura. Wertheimer, Kohler and Lewin were founders of the Gestalt movement. According to Hergenhahn and Olson (2005), Gestalt theorists believed that â€Å"we experience the world in meaningful wholes and do not see isolated stimuli but stimuli gathered together into meaningful configurations† (p. 264). Kurt Lewin proposed a field theory of human motivation. He believed that behavior and cognitive processes are determined by various psychological facts that a person is consciously experiencing. The psychological facts are interdependent and any change in one can affect all the others, therefore influencing our behavior. Kurt Koffka, another Gestaltist falling under the cognitive paradigm defined the law of Pragnanz in Gestalt Theory. The law of Pragnanz states that, â€Å"all mental events tend toward completeness, simplicity, and meaningfulness† (Hergenhahn and Olson, 2005, p. 473). Followers of Gestalt theory used this law as a guiding principle when studying learning. Another cognitive theorist was Jean Piaget. Jean Piaget contributed several theories including intelligence, schemata, assimilation and accommodation, and interiorization. According to his theory of intelligence, â€Å"intelligence  is any act that creates optimal conditions for the organism’s survival under the existing circumstances† (Hergenhahn and Olson, 2005 p. 295). Intelligence effects how one adapts to the ever-changing environment. In Piaget’s schemata theory a person’s schema is a cognitive structure that allows a person to act and respond to the environment. A schema can be either overt or covert behavior. The theory of assimilation explains how a person can respond to the environment using existing cognitive structures. The theory of accommodation explains how an organism adapts to the environment by modifying cognitive structures. Piaget’s concept of interiorization is described by Hergenhahn and Olson (2005) as â€Å"the gradual decreased dependence on the physical environment and the increased utilization of cognitive structures† (p. 299). Through this process, organisms can respond to more complex situations by thinking about them. Edward Chace Tolman’s ideas were also predominately cognitive. He believed that organisms develop a mental picture of the environment which he referred to as a cognitive map. The cognitive map develops when mental expectations are confirmed by experience. When an organism is faced with a problem, it utilizes the cognitive map and chooses the best solution requiring the least amount of work according to Tolman’s principle of least effort that will result in satisfaction. Albert Bandura, another cognitive theorist suggested that behavior is learned through observation. He theorized that learning is influenced by four processes. The first process, the attentional process, involves the observer attending to the model. The second process is called the retentional process. This process involves the observer retaining the information gained from the observation by storing it cognitively. The third process is the behavioral production process which requires the learner to have the physical capabilities or behavioral abilities to perform what is learned. The final process, the motivational process provides incentives that motivate the learner to actually perform what has been learned. Bandura also theorized that people’s behavior is also determined by reciprocal determinism. Hergenhahn and Olson (2005) summarize Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism by stating that, â€Å"behavior, the environment, and  people (and their beliefs) all interact† (p. 349). Falling under the neurophysiological paradigm is the theorist Donald Olding Hebb. Some of his theories included that of restricted environments, enriched environments, cell assemblies, phase sequences, and sensory deprivation. In Hebb’s theory of restricted environments, Hergenhahn and Olson (2005), explain that if an environment lacks stimulation or experience, it can have a negative impact on the growth and development of nervous system. A restrictive environment can disrupt normal intellectual and perceptual development. In contrast, an enriched environment full of stimulation and experience can enhance development. Hebb also believed that â€Å"each environmental object we experience stimulates a complex pattern of neurons called cell assemblies† (Hergenhahn and Olson, 2005, p. 379). The cell assemblies provide the basis of a thought. When cell assemblies become interconnected they form phase sequences. Phase sequences allow us to have streams of thoughts. According to Hergenhahn and Olson (2005), â€Å"Hebb concluded in his theories that â€Å"not only is sensory information necessary for proper neurophysiological development, but it is also necessary for the maintenance of normal functioning† (p. 384). When an organisms experience sensory deprivation, severe cognitive disorientation, stress and fear can occur. Hebb believed that the environment had a direct effect on mental and physiological processes which influenced behavior and learning. The final paradigm is the evolutionary paradigm. Attempting to explain the learning process using evolutionary principles was the theorist Robert C. Bolles. Hergenhahn and Olson (2005) state that Bolles believed that â€Å"learning involved the development of expectancies† (p. 425). Expectancies are when an organism learns that one event leads to another. Bolles believed that organisms had innate predispositions for behavior and that motivation restricts response flexibility. Hergenhahn and Olson (2005) explain that an organism’s natural reaction in a situation may make it difficult to learn a new response. Using the niche argument, â€Å"Bolles argued that an understanding of learning must be accompanied by an understanding of the evolutionary history of the organism† (Hergenhahn and Olson, (2005), p. 427). According this argument, organisms have to learn certain behaviors that they are  predispositioned for and not learn others depending on their niche and how they fit in the big picture. This can determine whether the organism is successful or not in adapting to its environment. Conclusion Although learning theorist in the various paradigms have attempted to explain learning and its processes, many questions are still unanswered. One of these questions is how does learning vary as a function of maturation? If learning occurs differently in different stages it would be beneficial to conduct research on how maturation affects the learning process. The information yielded from such research could be very beneficial in regards to education. Another unanswered question is how does learning vary as a function of species? If some organisms have the biological ability to learn certain behaviors and some do not, how can research involving different species be beneficial? If psychologists want to learn more about the learning process in humans, they should study humans rather than making generalizations across species. Other questions that remain unanswered involve learning and personality characteristics, learning as a function of the total environment, learning and associations, as well as learning and instinctive behavior. It is imperative that more research be conducted in an attempt to answer these questions about learning to give people a greater comprehension of learning. The more knowledge we have about the learning process and what affects it, the better we will be at making learning successful. References: Hergenhahn, B.R., & Olson, M. (2005). An Introduction to Theories of Learning. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.

THE APPRENTICESHIP OF DUDDY KRAVITZ essays

THE APPRENTICESHIP OF DUDDY KRAVITZ essays In the Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, Mordecai Richler clearly intends to portray his main character as a failure. Duddy understands perfectly well that a man must pursue his dreams, which is why he is one of the most motivated young man of his time. From the moment Duddy hears his grandfather say, "A man without land is nobody, he is prepared to seek the land of his dreams. This aspiration of Duddys is very respectable, but unfortunately his methods are totally inappropriate, and that leads to him being a failure. The moment that Duddy began to immerse himself into the establishment of his film company, it could be seen that he was willing to do anything to get money, even if he had to lie. For example, the film Duddy made for the bar mitzvah was of extremely poor quality, and as a result, the product was an obvious failure. Duddy himself knew that well: Duddy didnt say a word all though the screening but afterwards he was sick to his stomach. (Page 148). Later, Duddy said to Mr. Friar: I could sell Mr. Cohn a dead horse easier then this pile of _ (page 148). After this particular incident, Duddy does not even speak honestly to his clients. In conclusion, the only way Duddy sells his waste films is by telling lies. He always lies to gain money, and thats all that Duddy cares about. Duddy has never been loved in his family, so originally he was quite content to know that Yvette cares about him. At the beginning, Yvette and Duddy are in love. Its so nice to see you lie still for once, she said. Your always running or jumping or scratching. Duddy was surprised and flattered to discover that anyone cared enough to watch him so closely. (Page 92) As time passed by, however, Duddy began to use Yvette as a tool. The main reason for that is Duddy was striving to get the land, and since he could not legally own it as a minor...

Todo sobre la doble nacionalidad en Estados Unidos

Todo sobre la doble nacionalidad en Estados Unidos La doble nacionalidad significa que una persona puede ser ciudadana de dos paà ­ses al mismo tiempo. Y, en el caso de  Estados Unidos se admite esta posibilidad, pero hay inconvenientes importantes que conviene tener en cuenta. Para entender la situacià ³n y los posibles problemas hay que comenzar una informacià ³n corta sobre quà © dice la ley, seguido de una explicacià ³n de situaciones que dan lugar a que una persona pueda tener doble nacionalidad, para finalizar con los problemas que puede causar esta situacià ³n. Quà © dicen las leyes de USA sobre la doble nacionalidad Curiosamente, las leyes no mencionan la doble nacionalidad y en ninguna ley se obliga a elegir entre una nacionalidad u otra, aunque sà ­ contempla la posibilidad de su pà ©rdida. Adems, en la prctica se puede decir que Estados Unidos no alienta estas situaciones. La razà ³n es que pueden surgir problemas porque significa que una persona tiene, al mismo tiempo,  lealtad a dos paà ­ses distintos  y debe cumplir la ley de ambas naciones. De ahà ­ pueden nacer conflictos. Adems, la  proteccià ³n  que los Estados Unidos otorgan a sus ciudadanos puede verse limitada en los casos de doble nacionalidad, particularmente cuando una persona se encuentra en el paà ­s del que tambià ©n es nacional. Por ejemplo, si una persona con doble nacionalidad est en un paà ­s extranjero del que tambià ©n es ciudadano y, segà ºn las leyes del mismo,  debe cumplir  con el servicio militar, poco podr hacer los Estados Unidos para evitar que cumpla con esta obligacià ³n.Y al mismo tiempo esa persona puede estar  obligada  a registrarse con el Servicio Selectivo en Estados Unidos, a pesar de vivir en el extranjero Y lo mismo ocurre en los casos de  arrestos o detenciones. La embajada americana se ver impedida en estos casos de doble nacionalidad  para ejercer toda su influencia de proteccià ³n. A pesar de estos posibles inconvenientes lo cierto es que la doble nacionalidad es un hecho frecuente en Estados Unidos, aunque no se puede hablar de cifras porque no hay rà ©cords oficiales. Aunque se estima que puede afectar a varios millones de estadounidenses. Eso es porque es relativamente fcil obtener la doble nacionalidad. 5 formas de adquirir la doble nacionalidad en Estados Unidos Una persona puede tener ms de un pasaporte por diversas razones, entre las que destacan las siguientes: 1. Por nacimiento en Estados Unidos (o en Puerto Rico u otro territorio de USA), cuando el bebà © tambià ©n adquiere de forma automtica la nacionalidad de los padres, si uno de estos es extranjero. Esto es asà ­ salvo en el caso de bebà ©s que no tienen derecho a la  ciudadanà ­a americana a pesar de haber  nacido en Estados Unidos. 2. Por nacimiento en otro paà ­s, cuando el padre o la madre es estadounidense  y siempre y cuando se cumplan una serie de requisitos. En este caso se podrà ­a adquirir en el momento de nacer la ciudadanà ­a de USA por uno de los padres y la del paà ­s en el  que se nace, si se trata de un paà ­s que otorga la nacionalidad por nacer dentro de sus fronteras. 3. Por naturalizacià ³n de un inmigrante en los Estados Unidos, cuando se conserva la nacionalidad original. No todos los paà ­ses permiten que sus ciudadanos se hagan americanos. Puede suceder que les retiren el pasaporte al naturalizarse o que simplemente ignoren que se han convertido en estadounidenses. Conviene verificar las leyes del paà ­s de origen para evitar sorpresas desagradables. 4. Por decisià ³n voluntaria, como por ejemplo un americano adquiere la nacionalidad de su cà ³nyuge o la del paà ­s en la que reside. Y en este caso es cuando podrà ­a haber problemas que se explican ms abajo. 5. Y otras formas menos comunes. Aquà ­ se puede informacià ³n detallada sobre todas las formas posibles para obtener la ciudadanà ­a americana. Estados Unidos no pone problemas cuando la doble nacionalidad se da de forma automtica, por ejemplo, en casos de naturalizacià ³n para adquirir la ciudadanà ­a americana sin renunciar a la que se tenà ­a o en los casos de nacimiento. Es ms, permite que se utilicen dos pasaportes distintos, el de Estados Unidos y el otro, si bien para entrar y salir de USA à ºnicamente y sin excepciones el documento a utilizar es el pasaporte americano. Esta  es una lista de los documentos   que los ciudadanos pueden utilizar para ingresar a USA Riesgo de pà ©rdida de la ciudadanà ­a americana Sin embargo, sà ­ que puede haber problemas si una nueva ciudadanà ­a se adquiere voluntariamente al solicitarla de forma expresa. Por ejemplo, cuando un ciudadano americano se va a vivir a otro paà ­s y decide adquirir esa nacionalidad. Aquà ­ las autoridades americanas de la Embajada o consulado pueden considerar que hay una intencià ³n de renunciar a la ciudadanà ­a y se puede acabar perdiendo. No est claro quà © es intencià ³n de renunciar  a la ciudadanà ­a, ya que resulta de un conjunto de comportamientos, por lo que hay que tener cuidado y seguir operando como americano: pago de impuestos en USA, recibir el pago del cheque de la jubilacià ³n, estar registrado para el voto exterior,  etc. Adems, estos son otros casos en los que se corre el riesgo de perder la nacionalidad estadounidense.   Por à ºltimo destacar que obviamente se puede renunciar voluntariamente a la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense, pero es necesario seguir un procedimiento y hay consecuencias, particularmente para los que lo hacen con el fin de evitar pagar impuestos en Estados Unidos. Esta es una lista de 10 famosos estadounidenses  que renunciaron a la nacionalidad por diversas causas. Inconvenientes de la doble nacionalidad Las principales son dos: doble imposicià ³n y prohibicià ³n o dificultad para acceder a ciertos trabajos Una de las desventajas de la doble nacionalidad es la doble imposicià ³n, es decir  la obligacià ³n de pagar impuestos en los dos paà ­ses  de los que se es ciudadano. Estados Unidos impone la obligacià ³n de completar anualmente las planillas de impuestos aà ºn cuando se resida continuamente fuera del paà ­s. A la hora de determinar si hay que pagar impuestos y cunto es necesario tener en cuenta si existe algà ºn acuerdo internacional entre los EEUU y el otro paà ­s con el que se tiene la doble nacionalidad. De hecho, en la actualidad y segà ºn datos del  Registro Federal, se estn dando nà ºmero rà ©cord (aunque aà ºn pequeà ±os) de ciudadanos americanos que renuncian a su nacionalidad por razones precisamente econà ³micas, para evitar pagar impuestos en dos paà ­ses. Otra desventaja es la imposibilidad de acceder a cierto tipo de trabajos  En Estados Unidos muchos trabajos en empresas privadas, para el gobierno o ciertas posiciones dentro del Ejà ©rcito requieren un pase de seguridad (security clearance). La doble nacionalidad por sà ­ misma no es causa en la mayorà ­a de las ocasiones para que se deniegue un security clearance. Pero bajo las siguientes circunstancias es relativamente comà ºn: Uso de otro pasaporte, a menos que sea anterior a la adquisicià ³n de la nacionalidad americanaRealizar el servicio militar en otro paà ­s, a menos que ocurriera antes de hacerse americano.Aceptar beneficios mà ©dicos, de jubilacià ³n, educativos o similares del otro paà ­s del que tambià ©n se es nacional.Utilizar la otra ciudadanà ­a para proteger sus intereses econà ³micos  o de negocios en otro paà ­s.Participar como candidato en las elecciones de otro paà ­s, aunque no se resulte elegido.Desempeà ±ar un cargo pà ºblico en otro paà ­s (esta es una causa relativamente comà ºn por la que se renuncia a la nacionalidad americana).Votar en las elecciones de otro paà ­s. Esto solo en situaciones muy raras y extremas.Actuar en nombre de otro gobierno y defender sus intereses Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Earthquakes Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Earthquakes - Research Paper Example As a result, pressure is build up where the plates collide or bend, and the rocks develop cracks or faults that allow them to release the buildup energy, because of the strain. Earthquakes can hence occur at the boundaries or even in middle of the plates, based on where the strain is build up. The paper also gives latest discoveries and unanswered question on how to tell the timing of an earthquake. Keywords: Collide, Earthquakes, Strain, Energy, Boundaries, Magnitude, Seismologists, Seismograph, Faults, Tectonic Plates Introduction Earthquakes are natural disasters that have devastating effects on the environment. They often go unnoticed, and only those with a magnitude capable of being detected are reported or felt on the earth’s surface. According to FEMA, earthquakes are sudden earth shakes or tremors that result from the shifting and breaking of subterranean rocks, as they release accumulated strain build up for a long period (n.d.). It results in immediate effects and th e secondary ones caused by the tremors. Major earthquakes are known to have occurred in Alaska, China, and Japan, but more severe cases are also common along the pacific’s known ring of fire towards the west and south coasts of USA. Millions of lives have been lost, damages worth billions of investment, and aftermath displacement of populations have been recorded over history. Geological Features of Earthquakes To understand the concept of earthquake development, one needs to go back to the study of the earth’s content. The structure of the earth can be categorized into four major components, the inner core (solid part made up of nickel and iron), the outer core (molten nickel and iron), the mantle (third layer from the inside and made up of molten rocks), and the outermost earth’s crust, which has the lightest components of all. The crust is known to host a lot of human welfares and is made up of different types of rocks depending on their origin. The thin laye r of crust and the top of the mantle make most of the earth’s surface. However, they appear as one entity, despite being made up of many entities or pieces to cover the earth surface. These pieces move around and along each other making the earth’s surface to be in a continuous slow motion. The number of pieces and their movement give the impression of pieces in a puzzle. The pieces are the tectonic plates and float on the molten rocks of the mantle. The tectonic plate theory: The entire earth is covered by Lithosphere that comprise of the continental and oceanic plates that are in constant motion. They slide over the uppermost layer of the mantle (plastic aesthenosphere), and end up causing a geological process where they interact, which explains the concept of continental drift and sea floor spreading. The tectonic plates create movements under, over, past, and away, rubbing each other along their boundaries, whose effects are plates interlocking, stretching or bendi ng where they fail to release the accumulated energy (Coppola, 2011). The boundaries of the plates are rough edges and made up of many faults from which the earthquakes initiate. When the plates collide, some of the rough boundaries interlock; the intense pressure may cause the rocks to heat up and bend to create hilly areas, or spontaneous break to form

California history Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

California history - Research Paper Example In addition, this region records the largest number of wild fires as compared to the other states in America. The climate of this region is mainly cool with rainy winters and hot summers. Moreover, it was the home of a great n umber of America’s natives and the indigenes communities. It had unique cultural and linguistic traits due to the inter existence of almost seventy different groups of Native Americans. In this regard, this essay will delve on the political organization of the Native Americans. The political organization of the Native Americans had unique attributes due the lifestyle of these people1. For instance, political organization of a society is the collective provision of guidance to a community or society in either a formal or an in formal way. The natives were mostly hunter-gatherers hence settled down in groupings that matched their way of life. Their political organizations were diverse in that they had further divisions according to tribe, chiefdoms, bands, and states. In essence, the band political form of the organization was a small group of closely related relatives from the household in a particular region who came together on different occasions but did not answer to any superior authority. Ideally, this form of governance was not complex since the number of those under the ruler ship was a manageable number. This system did not have a central political structure hence making this form of governance to be informal. Moreover, communities under the band2 form of had autonomous extended family groupings that formed the political set up. Bands were unable to compete for community resources since they were not complex in the execution of leadership. They had two clusters, one being the simple bands and complex bands. Simple bands were the smallest groupings, which were narrow to the level of the extended families. Ion the other hand, composite bands had larger families totaling to hundreds in numbers. Sequentially, this political for m was easier due to the constant moving of the families in these communities because of their hunter-gatherer state. On the contrary, this leadership was definitive in that it had Leaders who acquired positions of leadership by virtue of portraying leadership abilities. In addition, they became leaders through their ability to influence their societies to act in certain ways. They stayed in the position of leadership until the community no longer had confidence in them. In essence, the leaders in charge of bands were the peace chiefs. They had wisdom, kindness, and abilities in leading the community in to successful battles3. This oldest form of political organization4 was essential in the solving of community problems because the leader knew the ones in the dispute quite well. Therefore, the delivery of judgment was fair according to the community. Other forms of political organization came about due to intermarriages between communities. Secondly, the Native Americans had tribes, which were groups of independent people that occupied a specific region and shared a common language. In addition, the tribes had common cultural practices applied by certain unifying factors. Additionally, a tribe composed of different people from bands and villages integrated in to lineages and clans. This form of the organization was a temporal and formal because of the frequent attacks by other bordering communities. Remarkably, there was no central authority hence making it an inform way of ruler ship5.